Cannibalism: A Perfectly Natural History

Cannibalism: A Perfectly Natural History (2017) by Bill Schutt is a popular science book that explores the phenomenon of cannibalism across various species, including humans, through a scientific lens. The book delves into the evolutionary, cultural, and biological aspects of cannibalism, challenging the taboo surrounding cannibalism through research and humorous storytelling. 

This guide uses the 2018 Algonquin Books edition of Cannibalism.

Content Warning: The source material and guide feature depictions of death.

Summary

In the prologue to Cannibalism, Bill Schutt provides an overview of the media’s fascination with fictional cannibals. Fictional and real cannibals are elevated to almost “mythical status” (xv) by the media. Though Western culture condemns cannibalism in practice, it fascinates people. Cannibalism was once used to justify colonialism and violence. It is also present in many non-human species. Schutt outlines his exploration of questions around cannibalism and its taboos, challenging misconceptions about the subject.

Schutt first explores cannibalism in the animal kingdom. Cannibalism is common among animals, particularly in situations involving starvation or captivity-induced stress. Beetles and tadpoles are used as examples of the reproductive advantage gained by cannibalism. Kin recognition is an important aspect, as animals often avoid eating their own family members. Cannibalism is widespread among invertebrates, Schutt notes, particularly those who do not recognize their own kind as anything more than food. Schutt draws a difference between filial cannibalism (eating one’s own offspring) and heterocannibalism (eating unrelated members of the same species). The latter is common among fish and reptiles. Schutt moves to dispels myths about post-coital cannibalism often associated with praying mantises or black widow spiders. The reputation for females eating their male partners after sex is, he says, exaggerated. However, there are examples of sex-related cannibalism in animals. More often, cannibalism is a response to overcrowding, food shortages, and resource competition. Overcrowding in poultry farms can lead to cannibalism, for example, among species which are not known to be cannibalistic in other circumstances. Overcrowding can also prompt cannibalism among mammals.

To display media sensationalism, Schutt highlights reports of cannibalism among polar bears due to climate change. The original study that began this story, he believes, threatens to undermine conversations regarding climate change. Cannibalism is not a new phenomenon among bears, he claims, despite misleading reports. Next, Schutt discusses cannibalism among dinosaurs and outlines debates among scientists in the field. In such debates, mentions of cannibalism earn greater media attention. Schutt explores the definition of cannibalism and questions which body parts may be consumed in a non-cannibal fashion. He also provides insight into studies of cannibalism among Neanderthals and early hominid species. 

In Chapter 9, Schutt discusses accusations of cannibalism that were historically used by European colonizing powers to justify colonial violence in the Americas. He explains that such accusations were often based on secondhand information, which was then exaggerated to justify slaughter, exploitation, and enslavement. As further evidence of hypocrisy and misinformation, Schutt discusses how the Catholic notion of transubstantiation could be considered cannibalistic. Debates about this fueled the violent Protestant Reformation. In Chapter 12, Schutt reviews one of the most famous incidents of cannibalism in US history—the Donner Party, a group of families who traveled west but got stuck in terrible winter conditions and were forced to engage in cannibalism. Schutt finds that much of the historical understanding of the incident was misreported or false.

In Chapters 13 and 14, Schutt examines the development of the taboo against cannibalism. This taboo spread through storytelling, he posits, and points to literary examples that warn against cannibalism. In non-Western cultures, however, this taboo is less pronounced. In China, cannibalism in various forms is less controversial. Historical famines have led to cannibalism in China, and there are examples of learned cannibalism and cannibalism in Chinese medical practices. Schutt suggests that the Chinese view of cannibalism is pragmatic. Furthermore, there is hypocrisy among European cultures, many of which engage in cannibalism in the form of rituals or medical practices. People consumed medicines made from Egyptian mummies while also condemning cannibalism in other cultures. In Chapter 16, Schutt discusses the phenomenon of placentophagy, the consumption of the human placenta. Many people consume human placenta, he claims, as do many animals following a birth. Scientists hold many theories as to how this may benefit new mothers. Schutt tries placenta himself, eating it in the home of Claire Rembis, whose business helps people learn ways to consume their placentas. Schutt claims that placenta tastes like chicken gizzards.

In the final chapters of Cannibalism, Schutt charts how anthropological studies of ritual cannibalism in the Pacific Islands became intertwined with an epidemic in Britain in the 1990s. The Fore people of Papa New Guinea engaged in ritual cannibalism and contracted a deadly disease named Kuru. Scientists debated how this disease was spread. An outbreak of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) in the 1980s in Great Britain involved research into cows’ brains, which showed similar symptoms. Researchers found that dead animals were being fed to livestock as a way to save money. The epidemic was poorly handled and negatively impacted the British agricultural industry. In his epilogue, Schutt reviews his attempts to demystify the taboo against cannibalism. He fears that future social changes may prompt an epidemic of cannibalism, highlighting the need for studies of cannibalism.